Baby Mama is a 2008 American romantic comedy film written and directed by Michael McCullers and starring Tina Fey, Amy Poehler, Greg Kinnear, Dax Shepard, Steve Martin and Sigourney Weaver.

Plot

Kate Holbrook (Tina Fey) is a successful single businesswoman who has always put her career before her personal life. Now in her late thirties, she finally decides to have a child of her own but her plans are dampened when she discovers she has a minuscule chance of becoming pregnant due to her uterus being T-shaped. Also denied the chance to adopt, Kate hires an immature, obnoxious South Philly woman named Angie Ostrowski (Amy Poehler) to become a surrogate mother for her.

When Angie becomes pregnant, Kate begins preparing for motherhood in her own typically driven fashionâ€"until her surrogate shows up at her door with no place to live. Their conflicting personalities put them at odds as Kate learns first-hand about balancing motherhood and career and also dates the owner of a local blended juice cafe, Rob Ackerman (Greg Kinnear).

Unknown to Kate, the in-vitro fertilization procedure Angie had did not succeed and she is feigning the pregnancy. Hoping to ultimately run off with her payment, Angie begins to regret lying about her not being pregnant but continually puts off confessing. When she gets an ultrasound, she discovers she is pregnant for real. Realizing the baby is her own (with her common-law husband, Carl (Dax Shepard), from whom she is separated), Angie is forced to confess at Kate's baby shower. When Kate explains to Angie that the pregnancy test was supposed to be taken two weeks after the procedure, and that the baby could still belong to her, it drives a wedge between the two women.

At a court hearing to determine the maternity of the child, the baby turns out to be Angie's and Angie makes an impassioned apology to Kate. As the two women meet face to face after the proceedings, Angie's water breaks and Kate rushes her to the hospital. During Angie's delivery, Kate passes out. As she wakes up, the doctor supervising Angie's pregnancy tells Kate that she's two months pregnant (the result of her relationship with her new boyfriend). After receiving the news, she goes to visit Angie, who is holding her new baby daughter Stef, named for Gwen Stefani. Kate forgives Angie and the two become best friends, ultimately changing each other for the better.

Angie and Kate raise their children and are in a sister-like relationship one year later at Stefani's first birthday party. It is revealed that Kate and Rob are very proud parents of a baby daughter and are engaged. Although he does not get back together with Angie, Carl stays close to his daughter and begins taking parenting classes. The final scene shows Angie and Kate sitting in front of a television set with their children, watching Tom and Jerry cartoons, a reference to an earlier line in the film.

Cast

Reception

Critical reception

As of December 2015, the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 64% of critics gave the film positive reviews based on 153 reviews, with the consensus that the film is "a lightweight, predictable comedy that ekes by on the strength of its performers." Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 55 out of 100, based on 34 reviews, indicating mixed or average reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.

In a review for RESOLVE: The National Infertility Association, reproductive lawyer Melissa Brisman comments that this movie should be viewed as entertainment rather than as portraying surrogacy in a factual manner.

Box office

In its opening weekend, Baby Mama grossed $17,407,110 in 2,543 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking #1 at the box office and averaging $6,845 per theater.

Baby Mama grossed a total of $64,163,648, with a production budget of $30 million.

Home media

Baby Mama was released on September 9, 2008 on both DVD and Blu-ray. Extras included commentary with writer/director Michael McCullers and cast members Tina Fey and Amy Poehler, From Conception to Delivery: The Making of Baby Mama Featurette, an alternate ending, deleted scenes, and Saturday Night Live: Legacy of Laughter.

References

External links

• Official website
• Baby Mama at the Internet Movie Database
• Baby Mama at AllMovie
• Baby Mama at Box Office Mojo
• Baby Mama at Rotten Tomatoes
• Baby Mama at Metacritic

Learn more »

16 mm film is a historically popular and economical gauge of film. 16 mm refers to the width of the film, with other common film gauges including 8 and 35 mm. It is generally used for non-theatrical (e.g., industrial, educational) film making or for low budget motion pictures. It also existed as a popular amateur or home movie making format for several decades, alongside 8 mm film, and later Super 8 film. In 1923, Eastman Kodak released the first 16 mm "outfit" consisting of a camera, projector, tripod, screen and splicer for $335. RCA-Victor introduced a 16 mm sound movie projector in 1932 and developed an optical sound-on-film 16 mm camera, released in 1935.

History

Eastman Kodak introduced 16 mm film in 1923 as a less expensive amateur alternative to 35 mm film. During the 1920s, the format was often referred to as sub-standard by the professional industry.

Kodak hired Willard Beech Cook from his 28 mm Pathescope of America company to create the new 16 mm Kodascope Library. In addition to making home movies, people could buy or rent films from the library, a key selling aspect of the format.

Intended for amateur use, 16 mm film was one of the first formats to use acetate safety film as a film base. Kodak never used nitrate film for the format because of the high flammability of the nitrate base. 35 mm nitrate was discontinued in 1952.

Production evolution

The silent 16 mm format was initially aimed at the home enthusiast, but by the 1930s it had begun to make inroads into the educational market. The addition of optical sound tracks and, most notably, Kodachrome in 1935, gave an enormous boost to the 16 mm market. Used extensively in WW2, there was a huge expansion of 16 mm professional filmmaking in the post-war years. Films for government, business, medical and industrial clients created a large network of 16 mm professional filmmakers and related service industries in the 1950s and 1960s. The advent of television production also enhanced the use of 16 mm film, initially for its advantage of cost and portability over 35 mm. At first used as a news-gathering format, the 16 mm format was also used to create television programming shot outside the confines of the more rigid television studio production sets. The home movie market gradually switched to the even less expensive 8 mm film and Super 8 mm format.

16 mm has been extensively used for television production with light cameras in many countries before portable video cameras appeared. Replacing analog video devices, digital video has made significant inroads in television production use. Nevertheless, 16 mm is still in use in its Super 16 ratio (see below) for low cost productions.

Format standards

Standard 16 mm

The picture taking area of standard 16 mm is 10.26 mm by 7.49 mm, an aspect ratio of 1.37:1, the standard pre-widescreen Academy ratio for 35 mm. The "nominal" picture projection area (per SMPTE RP 20-2003) is 0.380 in by 0.284 in, and the maximum picture projection area (per SMPTE 233-2003) is 0.384 in by 0.286 in, each implying an aspect ratio of 1.34:1. Double-perf 16 mm film, the original format, has a perforation at both sides of every frame line. Single-perf is perforated at one side only, making room for an optical or magnetic soundtrack along the other side.

Super 16 mm

The variant called Super 16 mm, Super 16, or 16 mm Type W, developed by Swedish cinematographer Rune Ericson in 1969, uses single-sprocket film, and takes advantage of the extra room for an expanded picture area of 7.41 mm by 12.52 mm with a wider aspect ratio of 1.67. Super 16 cameras are usually 16 mm cameras that have had the film gate and ground glass in the viewfinder modified for the wider frame. Since Super 16 takes up the space originally reserved for the soundtrack, films shot in this format can be enlarged by optical printing to 35 mm for projection. However, with the recent development of digital intermediate workflows, it is now possible to digitally enlarge to 35 mm with virtually no quality loss (given a high quality digital scan), or alternatively to use high-quality video equipment for the original image capture.

In 2009, German lens manufacturer Vantage introduced a series of anamorphic lenses under its HAWK brand. These provided a 1.3x squeeze factor (as opposed to the standard 2x) specifically for the Super 16 format. These lenses let camera operators use the entire Super 16 frame for 2.35:1 widescreen photography.

Ultra 16 mm

The DIY-crafted Ultra-16 is a variation of Super 16. Cinematographer Frank G. DeMarco is credited with inventing Ultra 16 in 1996 while shooting tests for Darren Aronofsky's Pi. Ultra 16 is created by widening the left and right sides of the gate of a standard 16 mm camera by 0.7 mm to expose part of the vertical area between the perforations. Perforation placement on standard 16 mm film (to the left of the division between frames) accommodates use of this normally unexposed area. The Ultra-16 format, with frame dimensions of 11.66 mm by 6.15 mm, provides a frame size between standard 16 mm and Super 16â€"while avoiding the expense of converting a 16 mm camera to Super 16, the lens requirements of Super 16 cameras, and image vignetting caused by traditional 16 mm cameras. Thus, standard 16 mm optics achieve a wider image. The image readily converts to NTSC/PAL (1.33 ratio), HDTV (1.78 ratio) and to 35 mm film (1.85 ratio), using either both the full vertical frame or the full width (intersprocket) frame, depending upon application.

Modern usage

The two major suppliers of 16 mm film today are Kodak and Agfa (Fuji closed its film manufacturing facility on 31 December 2012). 16 mm film is used in television, such as for the Hallmark Hall of Fame anthology (it has since been produced in 16:9 high definition) and Friday Night Lights and The O.C. as well as the The Walking Dead in the US. In the UK, the format is exceedingly popular for dramas and commercials. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) played a large part in the development of the format. It worked extensively with Kodak during the 1950s and 1960s to bring 16 mm to a professional level, since the BBC needed cheaper, more portable production solutions while maintaining a higher quality than was offered at the time, when the format was mostly for home display of theatrical shorts, newsreels, and cartoons, documentary capture and display for various purposes (including education), and limited "high end" amateur use. Today the format also is frequently used for student films, while usage in documentary has almost disappeared. With the advent of HDTV, Super 16 film is still used for some productions destined for HD. Some low-budget theatrical features are shot on 16 mm and super 16 mm such as Kevin Smith's 16 mm 1994 independent hit Clerks.

Thanks to advances in film stock and digital technologyâ€"specifically digital intermediate (DI)â€"the format has dramatically improved in picture quality since the 1970s, and is now a revitalized option. Vera Drake, for example, was shot on Super 16 mm film, digitally scanned at a high resolution, edited and color graded, and then printed out onto 35 mm film via a laser film recorder. Because of the digital process, the final 35 mm print quality is good enough to fool some professionals into thinking it was shot on 35 mm.

In Britain most exterior television footage was shot on 16 mm from the 1960s until the 1990s, when the development of more portable television cameras and videotape machines led to video replacing 16 mm in many instances. Many drama shows and documentaries were made entirely on 16 mm, notably Brideshead Revisited, The Jewel in the Crown, The Ascent of Man and Life on Earth. More recently, the advent of widescreen television has led to the use of Super 16. For example, the 2008/09 BBC fantasy drama series Merlin was shot in Super 16.

The BBC considers Super16 a standard definition film format, but other broadcasting and production companies may have different outlook. In particular, Scrubs has been shot on Super16 from the start and is aired either as 4:3 SD (first 7 seasons) or as 16:9 HD (seasons 8 and 9). John Inwood, the cinematographer of the series, believed that footage from his Aaton XTR Prod camera was not only sufficient to air in high definition, it "looked terrific." However, the BBC has recently announced that it would no longer accept 16 mm as an origination format for High Definition video transfer.

The Academy Award winning Leaving Las Vegas (1995) was shot on 16 mm.

The first two seasons of Buffy the Vampire Slayer were shot on 16 mm and was switched to 35 mm for its later seasons.

The first season of the popular series Sex and the City was shot on 16 mm. Later seasons were shot on 35 mm. All three seasons of Veronica Mars were shot on 16 mm and aired in HD. This Is Spinal Tap, and Christopher Guest's subsequent mockumentary films, are shot in Super 16 mm.

The first three seasons of Stargate SG-1 (bar the season 3 finale and the effects shots) were shot in 16 mm, before switching to 35 mm for later seasons.

The 2009 Academy Award winner for Best Picture, The Hurt Locker, was shot using Aaton Super 16 mm cameras and Fujifilm 16 mm film stocks. The cost savings over 35 mm allowed the production to utilize multiple cameras for many shots, exposing over 1,000,000 feet of film.

British Napoleonic era drama Sharpe (TV series) was shot on Super 16 mm right through to the film Sharpe's Challenge (2006). For the last film in the series, Sharpe's Peril (2008), the producers switched to 35 mm.

Moonrise Kingdom was shot using super 16 mm.

Digital 16 mm

A number of digital cameras approximate the look of the 16 mm format by using 16 mm-sized sensors and taking 16 mm lenses. These cameras include the Ikonoskop A-Cam DII (2008) and the Digital Bolex (2012). The Blackmagic Pocket Cinema Camera (2013) has a Super 16-sized sensor.

Cameras

Professional cameras

Today, the professional industry tends to use 16 mm cameras from Aaton and Arri, most notably the Aaton Xtera, Aaton XTRprod, Arriflex 16SR3, and Arriflex 416. Aaton also released the A-Minima, which is about the size of a video camcorder and is used for specialized filming requiring smaller, more versatile cameras. Photo Sonics have special extremely high speed cameras for 16 mm that film at up to 1,000 frames per second. Panavision has produced the Panaflex 16, nicknamed "Elaine".

Amateur cameras

For amateur, hobbyist, and student use, it is more economical to use older models from Arri, Aaton, Auricon, Beaulieu, Bell and Howell, Bolex, Canon, Cinema Products, Eclair, Keystone, Krasnogorsk, Mitchell, and others.

Film reproduction methods

Most original movie production companies that use film shoot on 35 mm. The 35 mm size must be converted or reduced to 16 mm for 16 mm systems. There are multiple ways of obtaining a 16 mm print from 35 mm. The preferred method is to strike a 16 mm negative from the original 35 mm negative and then make a print from the new 16 mm negative. A 16 mm negative struck from the original 35 mm negative is called an original. A new 16 mm print made from a print with no negative is called a reversal. 16 mm prints can be made from many combinations of size and format, each with a distinct, descriptive name:

• A 16 mm negative struck from an original 35 mm print is a print down.
• A 16 mm negative struck from an original 16 mm print that was struck from a 35mm original is a dupe down.
• A 16 mm print struck directly from a 16 mm print is a double dupe.
• A 16 mm print struck directly from a 35 mm print is a double dupe down.

Film traders often refer to 16 mm prints by the print's production method, i.e., an original, reversal, dupe down, double dupe, or double dupe down.

Color fading of old film and color recovery

Over time, the cyan, magenta and yellow dyes that form the image in color 16 mm film inevitably fade. The rate of deterioration depends on storage conditions and the film type. In the case of Kodachrome amateur and documentary films and Technicolor IB (imbibition process) color prints, the dyes are so stable and the deterioration so slow that even prints now over 70 years old typically show no obvious problems.

Unfortunately, dyes in the far more common Eastmancolor print film and similar products from other manufacturers are notoriously unstable. Prior to the introduction of a longer-lasting "low fade" type in 1979, Eastmancolor prints routinely suffered from easily seen color shift and fading within ten years. The dyes degrade at different rates, with magenta being the longest-lasting, eventually resulting in a pale reddish image with little if any other color discernible.

In the process of digitizing old color films, even badly faded source material can sometimes be restored to full color through digital techniques that amplify the faded dye colors.

Technical specifications

• 7.62 mm per frame (40 frames per foot) for print stockâ€"7.605 mm per frame for camera stock
• 122 m (400 feet) = about 11 minutes at 24 frame/s
• vertical pulldown

16 mm

• 1.37 aspect ratio
• enlarging ratio of 1:4.58 for 35 mm Academy format prints
• camera aperture: 10.26 by 7.49 mm (0.404 by 0.295 in)
• projector aperture: 9.65 by 7.21 mm (0.380 by 0.284 in)
• projector aperture (1.85): 9.60 by 5.20 mm (0.378 by 0.205 in)
• TV station aperture: 9.65 by 7.26 mm (0.380 by 0.286 in)
• TV transmission: 9.34 by 7.01 mm (0.368 by 0.276 in)
• TV safe action: 8.40 by 6.29 mm (0.331 by 0.248 in); corner radii: 1.67 mm (0.066 in)
• TV safe titles: 7.44 by 5.61 mm (0.293 by 0.221 in); corner radii: 1.47 mm (0.058 in)
• 1 perforation per frame (may also be double perf, i.e. one on each side)
• Picture to sound separation: sound in advance of picture by 26 frames for optical sound and 28 frames for magnetic.

Super 16

• 1.66 aspect ratio
• camera aperture: 12.52 by 7.41 mm (0.493 by 0.292 in)
• projector aperture (full 1.66): 11.76 by 7.08 mm (0.463 by 0.279 in)
• projector aperture (1.85): 11.76 by 6.37 mm (0.463 by 0.251 in)
• 1 perforation per frame, always single perf

Ultra 16

• 1.85 aspect ratio
• camera aperture: 11.66 mm by 7.49 mm (0.459 by 0.295 in)
• projector aperture: 11.66 mm by 6.15 mm (0.459 by 0.242 in)
• 1 perforation per frame (may also be double perf, i.e. one on each side)

Learn more »

My Super Sweet 16 is an MTV reality TV series documenting the lives of teenagers, usually in the United States, Canada and UK, generally with wealthy parents who throw huge coming of age celebrations. Parties include the quinceañera (a sweet 15), the sweet 16, and other birthdays including a My Super Sweet 21 (which was broadcast during MTV's Spring Break party) and My Super Swag 18. The show premiered on January 18, 2005 and ended its run on June 15, 2008. The opening theme is "Sweet Sixteen" sung by Hilary Duff.

In retrospect, Bustle identified "the main 14 elements [or tropes] which happened in most episodes which made it the supernova of a show that it truly is", including:

• "birthday tantrum[s]" ("the birthday boy or girl would be crying, screaming, stomping, or complaining about the fact that it's their birthday and they'll do what they want")
• the birthday boy or girl's "constant belligerence" against their parents in demanding more money
• "excessively decadent outfits"
• the party planner who is "tasked with organizing these unachievable birthday parties"
• overrunning the party budget
• "the obligatory party fight" when uninvited guests turn up
• large, expensive cars as birthday gifts
• a musical celebrity guest performing at the party

The series had two spinoffs, Exiled and The Real Deal, which have both ended their run by 2010. The show has also covered a number of celebrity coming of age parties. Bow Wow, Sean Kingston, Aly and AJ, Chris Brown, Soulja Boy Tell Em and Teyana Taylor have all had their parties featured on the show. A United Kingdom version of the program was also produced, and also a Spanish version entitled "Quiero mis quinces" or "Super Dulces 16" produced by MTV.

In 2008, MTV launched a spinoff titled Exiled. On the show, a number of parents of participants on My Super Sweet 16 banish their teens to remote countries in order to see if their "sweet sixteener" will survive the harsh conditions. In 2009, MTV announced their newest addition to the franchise, My Super Psycho Sweet 16, a horror movie based on the concept of the show, which was aired on October 23, 2009 and followed by two sequels: Part 2 and Part 3.

In March 2010, MTV International commissioned Maverick TV in the UK to make a new, international version of the Super Sweet franchise. Casting has begun globally on a series of 10 episodes, and interested parties are encouraged to go to the casting website. The brand has been extended to include people having birthdays aged 13â€"24. The series has also ended its run.

Bobcat Goldthwait noted that watching the My Super Sweet 16 marathon inspired him to write his controversial film God Bless America. Prior to attaining stardom in film, Jennifer Lawrence made her on-screen acting debut in an advertisement for the series depicting a fictional scenario (she never appeared in the series proper).

Mysupersweet16.com

MTV's Mysupersweet16.com is the online component of MTV's eponymous show which focuses on extravagant coming outs, sweet 16s, Quinceañeras, and more.

Criticism

The show has been criticised for its excesses and the effects of presenting such over the top parties as an aspirational norm to impressionable young people.

The Daily Mail said: "In an age of celebrity, where anyone desperate and rich enough can get their 15 minutes of fame, the series is a depressing indictment of our next generation's goals and aspirations" displaying "the crippling excesses of fame and capitalism that have come to symbolise our society."

English satirist Charlie Brooker gave a light-hearted criticism of the show on BBC4's Screenwipe, calling it "a stonehearted exposé of everything that's wrong with our faltering so-called civilization." He describes the protagonists by saying that "Each episode follows an unbelievably spoiled rich and tiny sod as they prepare to throw a despicably opulent coming of age party for themselves and their squealing shitcake friends." He said the show "might be an Al-Qaeda recruitment film." However, he added that "that's exactly how the show wants you to feel - it's even more effective at creating instant hate figures than Big Brother, and that's saying something."

One teenager (Audrey Reyes) is seen screaming at her mother and saying she "hates" her after having received a new Lexus SC430, costing US$67,000, a day before the party. However, after the episode aired, she apologized for the tantrum.

In pop culture

• Hip-Hop artist Common made reference to the show as well as Exiled in a line from his single "The Game", 'Watching Sweet Sixteen, Bitchin-ass rich kids Who don't know in life you gotta go the distance'.
• In the film Bratz, a character named Meredith throws a Super Sweet 16 Party, and has MTV film it.
• The show was parodied on an episode of Comedy Central's South Park ("Hell on Earth 2006"), broadcast on October 25, 2006. Satan was intent on throwing an over-the-top Halloween bash. His behavior reflected that of the sweet 16ers preparing for their coming-of-age birthdays. In the end, when Satan realizes his folly, the audience considers the sweet 16ers to be "worse than Satan." This is a reflection of the creators' disdain for the show, which they claim is just as offensive as South Park except that, where South Park satirizes offensive behavior, My Super Sweet 16 celebrates it, stating, "that is probably the most disgusting, foul show ever made." He went on to say that "where we would be ripping on the people acting like that, on My Super Sweet 16 the girls act that horrible and they're celebrated for it at the end, teaching little girls around the country that that's how you should act." Trey Parker further commented, "I can say.....every single girl that has been on t hat show, My Super Sweet 16, is evil. Is an evil horrible person. It's just that simple."
• In 2016, on the occasion of his 60th birthday, US actor Bryan Cranston (known for his role as Walter White in Breaking Bad) featured in a parody titled "My Super Sweet 60" for the Jimmy Kimmel Live! show, with Kimmel as party planner and various guest stars including musician Sisqo.
• The show was parodied in the fourth season of Robot Chicken in a sketch titled 'Annie's Super Sweet 16. The segment follows the format of the show with the episode featuring Annie Warbucks from the Little Orphan Annie comic strip.

Learn more »

A gaming computer is a personal computer designed for playing computationally demanding video games as an alternative to a video game console. Gaming computers are very similar to conventional PCs, with the main difference being the addition of gaming-oriented components such as one or more high-end video cards. Gaming computers are often associated with enthusiast computing due to an overlap in interests. However, while a gaming PC is built to achieve performance for actual gameplay, enthusiast PCs are built to maximize performance, using games as a benchmark. The difference between the two carries a large discrepancy in the cost of the system. Whereas enthusiast PCs are high-end by definition, gaming PCs can be subdivided into low-end, mid-range, and high-end segments. Contrary to the popular misconception that PC gaming is inextricably tied to high-priced enthusiast computing, video card manufacturers earn the bulk of their revenue from their low-end and mid-range offerings.

Because of the large variety of parts that can go into a computer built to play video games, gaming computers are typically custom-made, rather than pre-assembled, either by gaming and hardware enthusiasts or by companies that specialize in producing custom gaming machines. In order to generate interest, gaming computer manufacturers that sell complete systems often produce boutique models, allowing them to compete on aesthetic design in addition to the hardware inside.

History

Historically, gaming computers had several distinct hardware components that set them apart from a typical PC. The push for better graphics began with color fidelity, from display systems such as CGA eventually graduating to VGA, which was adopted for the mass market. Gaming also led the push for the adoption of sound cards, a component that is now commonly integrated onto motherboards.

In the 1980s, several non-IBM PC compatible platforms gained a measure of popularity due to advanced graphics and sound capabilities, including the Commodore 64 and Amiga. Video game developers of the time targeted these platforms for their games, though typically they would later port their games to the more common PC and Apple platforms as well. The MSX was also popular in Japan, where it preceded the video game console revolution. Japan also had several other popular gaming computers during the 1980s to early 1990s, including the very popular PC-88 and PC-98 as well as the powerful X68000 and FM Towns.

By 1993, PC compatibles were the standard for gaming. Computer Gaming World stated in January:

We think it would be a mistake to get anything less than a 386 clone with, at least a clock speed of 33 mhz. If possible, get a 486 clone with a faster speed. Get four megabytes of RAM and at least 100 MB on your hard disk. If you've never dealt with a C> prompt before, do yourself a favor and put Windows on the machine as your primary interface. If you're comfortable with the same DOS that you see on your friends' machines, go with DOS 5.0. Get a mouse, if you can afford it, and a sound card that is either AdLib or Soundblaster compatible. If you do win the lottery, throw in a CD-ROM, too. That's the basic game machine for today's games.

In September, the magazine replied to a reader asking for "the current '486' desktop dream machine for playing computer games":

486 66MHz DX/2 motherboard (VESA Local Bus) EISA

256K Cache RAM on motherboard

AMI BIOS (upgradable with disk)

8-16 Megabytes of 70ms or faster RAM

VESA compatible Local bus Video card with S3 (or other co-processor).

250 megabyte and up, SCSI 2 Hard Drive.

SCSI 2 host adapter with cache memory.

MPC Level 2 CD-ROM.

SoundBlaster 16 ASP w/ Roland Sound Canvas SC-7 module.

Full Thrustmaster Mark II WCS/FCS and Rudder pedals.

20" and up CAD monitor

Falcon Northwest began advertising in Computer Gaming World in 1993, claiming that the "Falcon MACH series are the first personal computers designed especially for the serious gamer in mind".

LAN parties helped to promote the use of network cards and routers. This equipment is now commonly used by non-gamers with broadband Internet access to share the connection with multiple computers in the home. Like sound cards, network adapters are now commonly integrated on motherboards.

In modern times, the primary difference between a gaming computer and a comparable mainstream PC is the inclusion of a performance-oriented video card, which hosts a graphics processor and dedicated memory. These are generally a requirement to play modern games on the market.

Forays into physics processing have also been made, though with Nvidia's buyout of PhysX and Intel's buyout of Havok, plans are that this functionality will be combined with existing CPU or GPU technologies.

Custom built gaming computers

By 2012 it had become increasingly popular for gamers to custom build their own PC geared toward gaming. Custom-building PCs allows for more budget control and easier upgradability. More often than not, it is possible to maximize performance for the best value when building a gaming rig. There are several components that must be considered when building a gaming rig, which include CPUs, memory, a motherboard, video cards, solid-state drives, power supplies, and cases. It is also common for gamers who don't want to build their own computer to purchase a purpose-built Gaming PC built by certain companies or a friend willing to help.

When building a custom built gaming PC, builders usually turn to independent benchmarks to help make their hardware selection. Organizations such as AnandTech and Tom's Hardware Guide provide such benchmarks and hardware reviews. The benchmarks include ratings for PC components that are necessary to build a gaming PC. It is also crucial to consider computer cooling, as this is required to remove the waste heat produced by gaming computer components.

Gaming computer making companies not only ensure that they use faster performing retail chipsets as opposed to the slower original equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts, but also follow a meticulous assembly process. Contrary to assembly line process, special attention is given here so that supreme quality and standard is maintained. These also help with the customization needs to different customers. Generally these steps are followed:

• Preparation of case
• Insertion of the motherboard
• Video card installation and power up test
• Installation of the disk drives
• Updates for the motherboard and processor
• System optimisation
• Installation of the desired software
• Cable management along with tie down
• Crucial tests including initial, diagnostics, extended, performance and usability tests.

Graphics cards

A graphics card also known as a GPU is essential to any custom built gaming PC except in some budget end ones that utilize an Accelerated processing unit (AMD APU). Modern cards connect to a computer motherboard using the Peripheral Component Interconnect Express (PCI Express or PCI-E). There are two major manufacturers when it comes to selecting a GPU for a gaming PC, AMD and NVIDIA. These companies provide GPU's which other companies such as MSI and ASUS, then design circuit boards and cooling shrouds for, making up between them the combined item known as a graphics card. While most graphics cards are designed (apart from the GPU) by the hardware vendor which sells it under their brand name, sometimes the GPU manufacturer will send out reference cards (with the PCB and cooling shroud entirely designed by the GPU manufacturer) for reviews or evaluation. Some models, like the Nvidia GTX TITAN are only authorized to be sold with the GPU manufacturer-designed circuit board and shrou d.

Processors

Another major component that cannot be overlooked in a gaming computer is the processor, or CPU (Central Processing Unit). Again, there are two major brands when it comes to selecting a CPU, AMD and Intel. According to benchmarks conducted in 2012, the Intel Core i7 appears to have a major performance advantage over its AMD counterparts. This is no surprise as the i7 is marketed towards high-end personal computing. It is worth noting, however, that after a certain point, CPUs often have limited impact on actual gaming performance (often less than 5% in frame rates). In the world of technology, it is important to stay up to date on all the current benchmarks.

Motherboards

The motherboard is the component inside of every computer that brings all the hardware together. It manages the input and output connections. Motherboards come in different form factors, or physical sizes. The most common form factors are ATX, mATX, and Mini-ITX. Gaming machines typically use ATX motherboards, as their size allows for greater future expansion. Most gaming motherboards provide Overclocking ability to enhance system speeds and support high amounts of RAM.

Memory

DDR Memory

DDR (Double Data Rate) Memory is essential for any computer system. Adding more memory allows the CPU to address more data for it to quickly access instead of reading off a comparatively slow disk drive or solid sate storage device. DDR RAM also has much lower latency than its GDDR counterpart and much lower bandwidth as the CPU relies on being able to change small amounts of data quickly. The latest standard of DDR memory is DDR4L.

GDDR Memory

GDDR (Graphical Double Data Rate) memory is required for the operation of any PCIe graphic card and is built directly onto the card itself. The amount of RAM built onto a graphic card allows the GPU to quickly access data such as textures instead of reading off of a much slower storage device. Having more GDDR memory allows the system to handle higher levels of Anti-Aliasing and more complex textures. GDDR memory has a much higher latency when compared to DDR memory but also has a much larger bandwidth thus allowing the GPU to deal with larger amounts of data at a slower rate when compared to a CPU. The latest revision of GDDR memory is GDDR5x.

Solid state drives

Solid-state drives (SSD) are a newer form of data storage which is gaining in popularity. The more common and traditional hard disk drive (HDD) is still the more widely used, but many gaming enthusiasts are turning to SSDs in favor of the advantages they offer over HDDs. Unlike HDDs, SSDs have no moving mechanical parts, meaning they are less susceptible to shock and also run silently. SSDs also offer faster access time, as HDDs require time in order for the moving parts to speed up to operating specifications. An SSD drive can be 4 or 5 times faster than a traditional HDD drive. For an SSD drive, files almost open instantly. This means with an SSD, booting up a system and launching programs take less time. SSDs will increase the performance of a system by how often the game accesses the drive in order load items from the game such as levels and textures. However, SSDs cost much more than HDDs do per gigabyte, meaning in terms of pure capacity, they are not as cost effective. They also currently offer a lower common maximum capacity than HDDs.

Power supply units

Although occasionally overlooked, the power supply unit (PSU) is still an important component to consider. The wattage needed to run a system is dependent on the hardware, so often a PSU calculator is used to determine the wattage needed. In addition, future upgrades to a gaming rig will possibly require more power, and PSUs lose power as they age, so it is often a good idea to buy a PSU that has the capability of lasting through several years and upgrades. The PSU must also be compatible with the other hardware pieces.

There are two types of PSUs, modular PSUs (MPSU) and non-modular PSUs. Non-modular PSUs come with fixed cables, meaning unused ones will be left unconnected.Modular power supplies have cables that are detachable so unused cables do not create excess clutter but are often more expensive than their non-modular counterparts. Both fulfill the same purpose, but often Modular PSUs are preferred because they allow for better cable management, as they remove the issue of unused cable clutter that non-modular PSUs often have. Semi modular power supplies come with only the necessary cables fixed, while cables that are not necessarily needed are able to be detached.

Cooling systems

Many gamers and computer enthusiasts choose to overclock their CPU(s) and GPU(s) in order to gain extra performance. The added power draw needed to overclock either processing unit often requires additional cooling to what the original equipment manufacturer shipped their product with, most notably in the case of CPUs. Two types of mainstream cooling exist, air cooling and water cooling. Air cooling, the more common of the two, uses a heat sink often in conjunction with heat pipes or vapor chambers to move heat away from the component and dissipate it into the air. Water cooling is somewhat more complex, it makes use of water blocks, radiators, pumps, tubing and optionally a reservoir. Water removes heat by running water through a block affixed to the component and then allowing the water time in the radiator in order to cool off. Fans are often used to increase a radiator's rate of heat dissipation.

Computer case

Choosing a computer case involves several considerations. For one, there is a large range of sizes. A larger gaming rig will allow for future upgrades. The case must also be compatible with the motherboard's form factor. Because games are oftentimes demanding on a system, one of the most important factors of choosing a case is cooling. In order to avoid the risk of overheating hardware, a computer case with good airflow and a quality fan will go a long way in ensuring proper cooling. Other additional features such as fan speed controllers, filters for dust management, and clear side panels are all useful as well. Custom-building allows a builder to personalize their case if they so desire for aesthetic purposes. There are many designs for computer cases so the builder can choose to their liking.

Prebuilt gaming computers

While many "advanced" gamers build their gaming PCs themselves, some choose to go with prebuilt or custom-built gaming PCs. These PCs can often be more expensive than building one's own, with higher premiums attached to high-end brands with varying levels of customer service. Different companies offer varying degrees of customization, some almost as much as building it oneself. There are however, drawbacks to building one's own computer. Assembling a computer means being personally responsible for any problems that may arise, both during the assembly phase, and after it is in regular use. Instead of using a single technical support hotline to cover the entire system, often one will have to deal with individual component manufacturers.

Due to the wide inconsistencies in after-purchase support from component manufactures, trying to get support can be a daunting task for even the most patient of people. Customer support is a major reason why even extreme gaming enthusiasts may look to a system integrator for their custom PC builds. There are many positive aspects in choosing to build one's own system, such as no longer being tied to specific configurations. Pricing on individual components is often better, and thus can save quite a lot of money on a comparable pre-built system. Warranties are often included with the price of each individual piece of hardware when building a PC, whereas a prebuilt PC's warranty may cost an additional fee or may be as little as 1 or 2 years for the entire system. Those who choose to build their own PC often seek help from an online community or forum in the absence of a consumer helpline.

One major drawback of buying a prebuilt gaming PC aside from the extra cost is that they are often built with a very powerful CPU, but with a relatively weak graphics card. This results in a "gaming" PC that performs poorly in gaming for the price paid. Most games today do not benefit much from having a very powerful CPU with more than 4 core and hyper-threading, but benefits greatly with a more powerful graphics card.

Gaming laptop computers

Gaming laptops are the mobile equivalent of gaming desktops and are usually more expensive than their desktop counterparts. Currently, most gaming laptops feature more power efficient versions of high end desktop graphics cards, which nevertheless still significantly drain the battery, and necessitate more advanced cooling systems. One recent development by NVIDIA is SLI for laptops. Generally, gaming laptops are not considered "rigs" as the term can also refer to the physical size of the system. Modern gaming laptops can achieve respectable game performance, but never quite match desktops in a class to class comparison, and most do not feature upgradeable graphics cards.

Due to the relatively small size that the hardware has to fit in, cooling the heat intensive components is a major problem affecting the performance of such laptops, usually causing degraded value for money performance wise. Attempts at using the same performance hardware as desktops usually end in a decreased clock frequency of graphics chips to reduce heat, causing the poor value for money.

You can find many value recommendations across internet on sites like techradar or ultragamingshop.

The introduction of the NVIDIA GTX 900M series of mobile GPUs in late 2014 represented a significant advancement from the previous 800M series, lessening the gap with desktop systems and making gaming laptops a more viable alternative to desktop PCs.

A newer approach in the gaming PC industry is to create small form factor desktops that are more compact and easier to transport than a normal full sized system. Examples include the Falcon Northwest FragBox, Razer Inc. Blade and Alienware X51.

Home built computers

With personal computers becoming more and more popular every day, more people are opting for a self-built tailored-to-work PC. With available parts from companies such as Intel, AMD and NVidia, it has become quite easy and cost effective to assemble an optimally functioning computer. This gives customers the ability to buy only what they will use or want, rather than spending money on a pre-built PC with components that may or may not be useful to one specific consumer. Building a PC at home is also advantageous if the PC is built for specific jobs, such as data processing and 3D developing. Though time consuming and risky, this is an alternative to buying a prebuilt computer from a vendor. There are pros and cons to homebuilt computers and they are not for everyone.

References

Learn more »

The Federal budget of Russia (Russian: Федеральный бюджет России) is the leading element of the Budget system of Russia. The federal budget is a major state financial plan for the fiscal year, which has the force of law after its approval by the Russian parliament and signed into law by the President of Russia. That the federal budget is the primary means of redistribution of national income and gross domestic product through it mobilized the financial resources necessary to regulate the country's economic development, social policy and the strengthening of the national defense. The share of federal budget accounts for a significant portion of the distribution process, which is th e allocation of funds between sectors of the economy, manufacturing and industrial areas, regions of the country.

The right of the Russian Federation for an independent federal budget is enshrined by Article 71 of the Russian Constitution and the Budget Code of Russia that regulates the details of its formation and execution.

In 2016, the Russian budget deficit reaches to $21Bln. It was expected to rise to the amount of $21.7 billion in the year. 2016 budget's revenues estimated to be 13.7 trillion rubles(200 billion US dollars) or 17.5% of GDP, while spending is planned to be 16 trillion rubles(roughly 233 billion dollars) or 20.5% of GDP. Budget deficit thus is 2.35 trillion rubles(33 billion dollars) or 3% of GDP.

Budget Process

In accordance with the Budget Code, the Russian government prepare and introduce the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian parliament a draft federal budget for next fiscal year no later than October 1 of this year. The federal budget is developed in accordance with the provisions of the annual budget message of the President of the Russian Federation.

The federal budget is considered the State Duma in three readings (amendments to the Code). At first reading, the basic parameters of the budget are adopted. According to the Budget Code, during the first reading of the State Duma has the right to increase revenues and the federal budget deficit, if these changes are not the endorsement of the government. The State Duma can reject the draft budget. In this case, a conciliation commission in conjunction with the government. In the second reading of the State Duma approves the budget section by section, and the third is on the budget law as a whole. Following the adoption of the State Duma the federal budget, the law goes to the Federation Council, the upper house of the parliament, and then signed into law by the President.

Structure

Difficulties in implementing fiscal reforms aimed at raising government revenues and a dependence on short-term borrowing to finance budget deficits led to a serious financial crisis in 1998. The Russian economy bounced back quickly from the 1998 crisis and enjoyed over 9 years of sustained growth averaging about 7% due to a devalued ruble, implementation of key economic reforms (taxation, banking, labor and land codes), tight fiscal policy, and favorable commodities prices. Russia ran a budget surplus from 2001 to 2008 when a financial crisis occurred.

Although the government revised its budget projections during 2009 to reflect lower oil prices and the effects of the economic crisis, it ended the year with a budget deficit amounting to 7.9% of GDP, which it financed from the Reserve Fund, one of the government’s two stabilization funds. The government’s anti-crisis package in 2008 and 2009 amounted to about 6.7% of GDP, according to World Bank estimates. The package provided support to the financial sector and enterprises through liquidity injections to banks and tax cuts/fiscal support to enterprises as well as modest support for households and small and medium enterprises and increased unemployment benefits.

In recent years, the highest rate of increased fiscal revenues associated with the production and export of mineral resources (tax on mineral extraction, oil export duties, etc.). In particular, the 2008 federal budget of Russia was formed on 50% oil and gas revenues (in 2006 the share of oil and gas revenues accounted for more than half, in 2003 it accounted for a quarter of the total income).

Learn more »

Moto G is an Android smartphone developed and manufactured by Motorola Mobility. Released on 13 November 2013, the phone was initially aimed at emerging markets, although it is also available in developed markets as a low-price option.

After six months on the market, the Moto G became Motorola's best-selling smartphone ever, and was the top selling phone in Mexico and Brazil.

The Moto G was succeeded by the second generation Moto G in September 2014 and the Moto G (3rd generation) in July 2015 and the Moto G4 in June 28, 2016.

Specifications

The phone features a 4.5 inch LCD IPS screen, originally launched with Android 4.3 "Jelly Bean" operating system (currently upgradable to Android 5.1 "Lollipop") and a Qualcomm Snapdragon 400 quad-core processor clocked at 1.2 GHz, paired with the Adreno 305 GPU running at 450 MHz clock speed.

The phone is closely related to the Moto X that was released three months prior, although there are some key differences despite their similar appearances. The Moto G is not able to have active notifications, quick capture, and touchless control like the Moto X due to the Moto X using a special processor that would be cost-prohibitive for the Moto G. In addition, the Moto G has a removable back cover so that users can customize the phone in whatever color they want, the opposite of the Moto X's sealed back that is held on with an adhesive.

The original Moto G did not support LTE, due to the standard's lack of adoption in emerging markets. On 13 May 2014, Motorola unveiled an updated variant of the phone, the Moto G LTE, which added LTE support, a gyroscope, and a MicroSD card slot which is compatible with cards up to 32 GB. Some early problems with speed class 10 cards have been solved with the latest Android version 4.4.4. By January 2015 the Android Lollipop 5.0.2 OTA update started rolling out and September 2015 Android Lollipop 5.1 version roll out in India. As of March 2015, Motorola has been slowly upgrading handsets. Motorola started releasing Android 5.1 Lollipop OTA update for Google Play Edition on April 2, 2015. UK 5.1 Lollipop update started June 12, 2015. Indian version has also been updated to 5.1.

Availability

The Moto G was released first in Brazil and some parts of Europe. It was released in Canada and United States on 22 November 2013 and 2 December 2013 respectively. In India Moto G was the comeback phone for the company's Indian subsidiary. It used the unique strategy of selling via only a single e commerce player namely Flipkart; this proved to be a major success. The Moto G Google Play edition is a global GSM model available unlocked from Google Play. In the United States, the Moto G is available for Verizon, Republic Wireless, Boost Mobile, Sprint (Sprint Prepaid), Cricket Wireless, U.S. Cellular, StraightTalk and Consumer Cellular customers. Moto G was released in India on 6 February 2014 in an exclusive deal with Indian e-commerce company Flipkart.

3G variants

Wind Mobile in Canada distribute an AWS version that appears to be using a modified XT1032 baseband.

LTE variants

All LTE variants have 8 GB storage and microSD card slot that supports cards of up to 32 GB.

Critical reception

• Digital Trends - Editor’s Choice Award
• IT Pro Portal â€" Best Buy Award
• Trusted Reviews - Product of the Year at the 2013 TrustedReviews Awards
• Trusted Reviews â€" Best Phone Under £250 of 2013
• Expert Reviews â€" Best budget smartphone up to February 2014
• PC Advisor â€" Best budget smartphone up to May 2014

References

External links

• Official website

Learn more »

OpenGov is a Silicon Valley technology company that offers cloud-based software for public sector budgeting, reporting, and open data, powering more effective and accountable governments.

History

OpenGov was founded in 2012 by Zachary Bookman, Nate Levine, Dakin Sloss, Mike Rosengarten and Joe Lonsdale. The company's founders and several advisors met while working with California Common Sense, a non-profit non-partisan organization, which advocates open data and open government principles. Until 2013, the company was known as Delphi Solutions.

Products

Through its Smart Government Platform, OpenGov offers a complete suite of software products, all designed to enable public agencies to make data-driven decisions, improve budgeting and planning, and inform elected officials and citizens. According to the company's website, the platform complements traditional accounting and enterprise resource planning systems by providing user-friendly access to data.

OpenGov Intelligence

OpenGov Intelligence is a cloud-based reporting and data visualization solution that displays an individual government's financial and non-financial data, including its revenues and expenditures by fund, department, and type of account. The product lets departments track their spending against budget, monitor the financial status of capital improvement projects, and explore revenue trends. Users can view the data in a variety of interactive graphs and tables, as well as download or share the data through email or social media.

OpenGov Budget Builder

OpenGov Budget Builder is a collaborative budgeting tool for governments. Individual departments collaborate on and submit budget proposals. Then, budget administrators, finance directors, and department heads access and evaluate proposals in one central location.

OpenGov Transparency

OpenGov Transparency visualizes government financial and nonfinancial data, allowing the public to drill down into graphs and tables. This product also includes saved views that answer common questions, annotations, maps, and performance dashboards. This product is like OpenGov Intelligence, but only consists of the public-facing capabilities.

OpenGov Open Data

OpenGov Open Data, powered by enterprise-ready CKAN, delivers public data to civic developers, businesses, and citizens. This solution provides a hosted and managed CKAN instance with customizable portals.

Customers

As of December 2016, OpenGov serves over 1300 government entities (including state agencies, city governments, school districts, and other special districts) in 47 states, Washington, D.C., and Canada.

Municipalities

The City of Palo Alto was OpenGov's first customer, following a collaboration between the city and employees from nonprofit California Common Sense to launch a comprehensive open data platform.

Following the City of Bell scandal involving the misappropriation of city funds, the Bell city government began using OpenGov in October 2013 as part of a larger initiative to rebuild trust between the city and residents.

Other notable municipality customers include Washington, D.C., the City of San Diego, the City of McKinney, and the City of Newark.

Counties

Notable county customers of OpenGov include Allegheny County, PA, Maricopa County, AZ, and Anoka County, MN.

States

Ohio State Treasurer Josh Mandel launched OhioCheckbook.com with OpenGov in early December 2014. Ohio was one of the first states in the country to use a searchable, machine readable checkbook for transactions. The Treasurer’s Office allows local governments to place their checkbook level data on OhioCheckbook.com at no cost to the agencies themselves. These local governments include cities, counties, townships, schools, library districts and other special districts.

In 2016, the Colorado Department of the Treasury implemented OpenGov to explore and report on its debt obligations from a central system.

Schools and Special Districts

Notable OpenGov school and special district customers include the Menlo Park City School District, Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, and the Jackson County Water and Sewerage Authority in Georgia.

Board Members

OpenGov’s board consists of Co-Founder & Chairman Joe Lonsdale, Co-Founder & CEO Zac Bookman, Marc Andreessen of Andreessen Horowitz, and Cisco Executive Chairman John Chambers.

Advisors

OpenGov is advised by experts from the technology, financial, and public service sectors. Examples include:

• Adrian Fenty, Mayor of Washington D.C. from 2007 to 2011
• Mark Goines, Senior VP at Intuit and on the board of Mint.com
• Pete Peterson, Executive Director of the Davenport Institute
• George Shultz, former U.S. Secretary of the Treasury and Secretary of State
• Charles Songhurst, Former Head of Corporate Strategy at Microsoft
• Bill Statler, Director of Finance & Technology at City of San Luis Obispo from 1988 to 2010
• Tim Tully, Chief Data Architect, Yahoo!
• Lawrence H. Summers, Former U.S. Secretary of the Treasury
• Stephen Goldsmith, Former Mayor of Indianapolis and Director of Data-Smart City Solutions at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University
• Pierre Lamond, venture capitalist
• Byron Dorgan, Former U.S. Senator from North Dakota

Funding

OpenGov has raised $47 million from venture capital and angel investors. A $3 million Series A round in 2012 included venture funds 8VC, Founder Collective, Valiant Capital, and "a number of high-profile angel investors." In 2013, the company raised $4 million in further investment from 8VC and new investor Thrive Capital.

On May 15, 2014, OpenGov announced a new $15 million Series B round of funding including investments from Andreessen Horowitz, 8VC, SGVC, Streamlined Ventures, Sway Ventures, and Thrive Capital.

An additional $25 million Series B round in October 2015 included additional investments from Andreessen Horowitz, 8VC, Thrive Capital, and Sway Ventures, as well as new investors Glynn Capital, Scott Cook, and Ashton Kutcher and Guy Oseary’s Sound Ventures. Marc Andreessen was also added to the board during the October 15, 2015 round.

Acquisitions

OpenGov acquired Ontodia, a leading developer of Open Data CKAN solutions, in April 2016. The acquisition has allowed OpenGov to build out its offerings, adding a managed open data CKAN solution and dashboards to the OpenGov Smart Government Platform.

Learn more »